CMM-Media and Society - Discuss Pozner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CMM-Media and Society - Discuss Pozner - Essay Example Since women are called the jealous gender, they are also given the title of being untrustworthy. And all this is simply a result of television shows making up our minds for us. We regularly watch such shows where women are shown trying to steal other women’s boyfriends and husbands; where they are competing with their own gender and planning against them; where they are trying to harm other women and getting a weird kind of satisfaction through it. And the reason behind television portraying such a view of women is that these kinds of shows are more popular among those who have nothing better to do than pass time. Besides, it serves as comedy and entertainment shows for the less intellectuals. Again, it is mainly about ratings and where there is a catfight there will be bound to be an audience for it. Such has become the mentality of our people and the television takes full advantage of

English essay part one Essay Example for Free

English essay part one Essay In this essay I am going to explain how Conan Doyle adds tension and suspense to The Adventure of the Speckled Band I will be discussing descriptions of the setting and characters also the language he uses, I will also look into the time period it was written. Sherlock Holmes was written during the Victorian era. This was a time in London when there was much crime and poverty, London was a vile and dangerous place. Victorian people greatly feared crime with Jack the Ripper on the loose, the police couldnt catch him because their methods were inefficient and many officers were corrupt. Victorians resented the police in London because they did not appear to be protecting the public. In 1887 Arthur Conan Doyle created, Sherlock Holmes, Victorians immediately fell for the fictional character. They liked him because he cracked every case and always got the bad guy. He was seen as the perfect detective. When Doyle tried to kill off his famous character, in 1893, he received death threats warning him to keep Holmes alive! Even know over 100 years on from Holmes birth in 1887 he is still popular. The story is called The Adventure of the Speckled Band. it starts with a frightened Helen stoner telling the story of her sister Julia stoner, and the mysterious circumstances surrounding her death and her concerns for her own life. Sherlock Holmes investigates and finds that Julia had been murdered by Dr. Roylott who was trying to kill Helen as well, but before Holmes could catch Dr. Roylott, the snake that he was using to try and kill the two girls, turns on him and he gets bitten and killed by it. The setting adds tension to the story because they create a spooky atmosphere, it does this in many ways, like in the description that Helen Stoner gives of Stoke Moran Manor, she says Indian animals wonder freely over his grounds and are feared by the villagers this gives the impression that he doesnt want anyone on his property. When the reader learns that Vagabonds. encamp in the grounds this causes tension because they are another suspect and it makes the reader wonder why he does not want others on the grounds. The reader feels intrigued when Helen Stoner says we had no feeling of security unless our doors were locked because, for most people, their home is the safest place in the world but Helen needs her door locked to feel safe. When the night is described as being A wild night. The wind was howling out side and the rain was beating this creates anticipation because something always happens during a storm, this is called pathetic fallacy. The description windows blocked by old-fashioned shutters with broad iron bars. makes it sound as if Helen is a prisoner and Dr. Roylott is like a guard, and a prison is designed so, no one can get in or more importantly no one can get out. The description of Stoke Moran as a building of grey.. stone with.. two curving wings link the claws of a crab uses a simile create the feeling that the house is alive and closing in on its occupants. The words gathering darkness makes it sound as if the darkness is alive and trying to consume everything How does Conan Doyle create tension and suspense in The Adventure of the Speckled Band?

Emerging Themes In A Country Doctor English Literature Essay

Emerging Themes In A Country Doctor English Literature Essay A Country Doctor is a short story written by Franz Kafka (1883-1924), a Polish Jew renowned for his distinctive literature. It is the story of a rural doctor who is called upon to attend to a patient in circumstances of perfect difficulty-deep in the night, amid a severe snowstorm, to travel ten miles when he has lately lost to the cold the life of his horse that draws his carriage. His maids efforts to search around for a borrowed horse are fruitless-as the doctor himself anticipates. Acting in frustration he kicks open an old disused pigsty, and from it proceeds help: a groom and two horses to his aid-or so he believes-only for the groom to set him up for the journey and then unexpectedly remain to embark on fulfilling his violent lust on the doctors defenceless maid, as he has wickedly proclaimed intent. The doctor arrives in no time and is briskly shown to the patient, who immediately makes his desire to die privately known to the doctor, causing this journey to reveal itself to the doctor as an exercise in futility, especially as he recollects the desperate situation he has left his maid in on account of his own imprudent departure, and as he initially fails to see what is ailing the invalid youth. He rejects the old hosts courtesy of a drink of rum offered, feigning attention to the patients case in spite of his foregone conclusion. It soon becomes clear that he plans to leave the young man unattended, but amid all the unease this realisation causes on the hosts, he is helped by a maidens holding of a bloody cloth to see the patients wound near his hip-a festering ugly rose-like wound with large worms wriggling inside. The hosts soon strip off his clothes and cast him beside the patient on the wounded side as children sing strangely outside, and the two are left alone together. The doctor is forced to calm the patient to tranquil death with somewhat self-excusing arguments. He is keen to escape this situation and hurriedly climbs a horse naked, dragging the other one, the carriage and fur coat along, but the horses make no haste, painfully suspending him in the moment of feeling empty and wasted. Challenged first with the requirement to be capable of responding urgently to a patients call in spite of inconvenient timing, distance and weather; secondly with the requirement to procure means in a situation of unanticipated lack which highlights his precarious unsociability (or that of his neighbours); thirdly, the requirement to protect his vulnerable maid from an explicit threat of a sex predator at a time when duty calls elsewhere; and fourthly, the requirement to make a correct professional decision, faced with a patient who wants to be helped to die and amid feelings and thoughts of guilt, the doctor is dismayed to find himself failing too often. Even after he finds these challenges daunting, he is left to wallow in frustrations he encounters: one being his ultimate inability to rescue his maid; he is incapable of being urgently helpful to her despite meaning to be all along since he left for duty. Things do not work out for him as he had hoped, though initially it is a frustration to him as well that she is abandoned to this vile groom who prefers to delight himself in her misery over accompanying the doctor as the doctor had expected. Yet another is that he finds himself unable to treat his patient-he does not end up curing him. Furthermore, the patient does not even wish to be cured; he wishes to die, and is hostile to the doctors attendance. The doctor finds the whole journey amounting to a response to a false alarm, with added professional frustrations, which rubbed it in how truly unhappy and humiliated it makes his life. Initially, the death of his faithful old horse was a frustration that he hoped to overcome, but it persists as he finds that the horses he is newly experiencing only serve to complicate his predicament, as if by some conspiracy of circumstances, in the manner which they ride him off when he wishes to stay and help his frightened maid; and they walk him ever so slowly back whereas he wishes to escape his unpleasant ordeal and return to redeem his already his already molested Rosa. Perhaps we can call this short story a nightmare. Perhaps it is a literal nightmare-that is plausible-owing to the psychological intensity of the narrated experience. The author almost seems to rush and club together the doctors experiences, giving him such little control, and all along portraying how intense the doctors emotions and thoughts are over the whole ordeal. Or it may be viewed as a metaphorical nightmare; a narration of events that anyone would hate to experience in real life as they fictionally occurred to the country doctor, the main character of the story. Arguably, though, some events in the story occur in a manner somehow fraught with mystery, such as the plot-convenient and plot-rescuing presence of the pigsty, from which come this groom and these horses which serve to deepen the doctors personal crisis; the mischievous and uncharacteristic but highly aware songs which the children sing and the intelligent behaviour of the horses. But there are themes which emerge in this story. One is the dilemma of professional occupation and domestic or private obligation. This theme is demonstrated especially in that moment when the doctor helplessly witnesses his maid being ambushed by the groom, as he is ridden off in his carriage to work. The predicament haunts him throughout his call of duty, and is regularly brought to stark remembrance as he works, causing in him an inner restlessness and emptiness. Some commentators have shown this theme as being pertinent in Kafkas life-he is torn between happiness in relationships and his writing career. Another is the moral complexities professional ethics face, as in the case of euthanasia in the medical profession. Is it right to cure a patient who wishes to die? Should a doctor have to make such a decision? Might a doctor sometimes lack the will or form to be helpful to a patient owing to a personal or private crisis? What happens then? Should he be forced to work-is such compulsion successful anyway? Moreover, there is an apparent thematic conspiracy of circumstances, and its potential to change a persons perspective to life. Is it an ordinary thing-and is it good? Especially because we see another theme: the doctor is plunged into an existential crisis. All what he values in his life -both private and professional-is under attack, and he fails to satisfy his own standards and expectations of himself. Is private life worth sacrificing for profession-particularly if profession is potentially life-saving? Could it be that sacrificing private life ends up destroying ones professional competence? Clearly though, the choices sometimes may have to be mutually exclusive, and the individual risks suffering helpless regret whichever way. Kafka, Franz. A Country Doctor. Trans. Ian Johnston. Nanaimo, BC: Malaspina University-College, 21 Feb. 2009. Web. 18 May 2010. Soman, Ebey. Literary analysis: The Country Doctor, by Franz Kafka. Helium, Inc. Web. 21 May 2010. Bernardo, Karen. Franz Kafkas The Country Doctor. www.storybites.com. Web. 21 May 2010.

Stem Cell Research Essay -- Science Biology Stem Cells Essays Papers

Stem Cell Research Research on stem cells is advancing knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. This promising area of science is also leading scientists to investigate the possibility of cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine. Research on the topic of stem cells is advancing the scientific knowledge about how cells develop. Stem cell research is applied to two main characteristics that allow stem cells to be distinguished among most other types of cells. The first major characteristic is that the stem cells are unspecialized and can renew themselves through cell divisions for longer durations of time. Secondly, the cells can be manipulated under certain conditions to become any cell that the scientist encodes them with; liver cell or even a heart cell. Scientists primarily work with two types of stem cells; embryonic and adult, descriptions will be addressed later. Unlike muscle cells, blood cells, and nerve cells, stem cells may replicate many times. An initial population of stem cells grows for many months and in lab conditions can produce millions of cells. The cells are termed to be long term self renewing if the produced cells are unspecialized like their parent stem cells. A key topic in stem cell research is called differentiation. Differentiation is described as being when unspecialized cells give rise to new specialized cells. Scientists are still exploring this topic and what signals this action. So far they have described the external signal. The external signal is when chemical secretions are passed on by other cells, physical contact is made, and c... ...ce this new technology, maybe not for decades but this new science will effect our immediate future. The line has to be establishing that separates moral and ethical uses from inhuman and un-ethical uses. That line was not a major focus before February 12, 2004, now people in the science field have a major task at hand. In conclusion human embryonic and adult stem cells each have advantages and disadvantages for future application. Embryonic stem cells can differ in number and type of differentiated cells they can become. Adult stem cells are generally limited to differentiating into different cell types of their specific tissue or organ of origin. Stem cell research will be able to be used to test drugs and their effects, along with their most important application of human stem cells to regenerate tissues that could be used for cellular based functions. Stem Cell Research Essay -- Science Biology Stem Cells Essays Papers Stem Cell Research Research on stem cells is advancing knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. This promising area of science is also leading scientists to investigate the possibility of cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine. Research on the topic of stem cells is advancing the scientific knowledge about how cells develop. Stem cell research is applied to two main characteristics that allow stem cells to be distinguished among most other types of cells. The first major characteristic is that the stem cells are unspecialized and can renew themselves through cell divisions for longer durations of time. Secondly, the cells can be manipulated under certain conditions to become any cell that the scientist encodes them with; liver cell or even a heart cell. Scientists primarily work with two types of stem cells; embryonic and adult, descriptions will be addressed later. Unlike muscle cells, blood cells, and nerve cells, stem cells may replicate many times. An initial population of stem cells grows for many months and in lab conditions can produce millions of cells. The cells are termed to be long term self renewing if the produced cells are unspecialized like their parent stem cells. A key topic in stem cell research is called differentiation. Differentiation is described as being when unspecialized cells give rise to new specialized cells. Scientists are still exploring this topic and what signals this action. So far they have described the external signal. The external signal is when chemical secretions are passed on by other cells, physical contact is made, and c... ...ce this new technology, maybe not for decades but this new science will effect our immediate future. The line has to be establishing that separates moral and ethical uses from inhuman and un-ethical uses. That line was not a major focus before February 12, 2004, now people in the science field have a major task at hand. In conclusion human embryonic and adult stem cells each have advantages and disadvantages for future application. Embryonic stem cells can differ in number and type of differentiated cells they can become. Adult stem cells are generally limited to differentiating into different cell types of their specific tissue or organ of origin. Stem cell research will be able to be used to test drugs and their effects, along with their most important application of human stem cells to regenerate tissues that could be used for cellular based functions.

Religious Persecution

Religious Persecution Religious persecution is a complex situation in the world. Many countries have this situation. In the country of Whitia, a large group of Whitians is being persecuted for its religious beliefs by a larger religious group. They are not allowed to worship or display their religious beliefs in any way. They’re being stoned and imprisoned, and their religious leader has been burned at the stake. It is not easy to solve this problem by its own government.The United States should get involved in this situation. The United States could get involved in this situation by several ways, such as giving food and medicine to the Whitians who are being persecuted, and talking to Whitian government. People in Whitia who are being persecuted need food and medicine. But they can’t get those things from their own government because the larger religious group controls the government.The larger religious group regards them as enemies because of their different religiou s beliefs, so they won’t give anything to them. A lot of Whitians die by hunger and disease. This situation aggravates the  conflict between the two different religious groups. With the United States’ help, food and medicine will save a lot of people’s life. Intervention Action is good for reducing the conflict between the two groups. The United States can also talk to the Whitian government about the importance of people’s life and freedom.It could make the government realize that everyone should be able to choose their beliefs, and they should  stop  the violence  between the two different religious groups. The Unites States has already helped a lot of countries, such as Jordan, Sudan and Egypt. The help is helpful to solve the religious persecution and have saved a lot of people’s life in those countries. Assistance will be effective in Whitia, too. One of my friends, Gavin, has different opinion. He thinks that the UnitedStates should n ot get involved in this situation because of its huge financial cost. What I want to say is that it will actually cost a lot of money to buy the food and medicine, but it is truly worth because the money is to save people’s life. Money is made by people. The value of money  cannot be  compared  with the  life. So the United States should get involved in this situation no matter how much money it will cost. Religious persecution in Whitia is a problem which is not easy to solve, and the United States should get involved to help Whitians solve it.

Lord of the Flies- Basic Legal Notions essays

Lord of the Flies- Basic Legal Notions essays The movie the Lord of the flies reflects many basic legal notions. Many of these concepts are identified and questioned throughout the film. The movie starts out with a plane crash. Due to this many private-school boys are left stranded on a deserted island. The boys are left to fend for themselves with no adult authority figures left with them. Piggy and Ralph are the 1st to meet up with each other after escaping from their shot-down plane. They become friends immediately and stick loyally together throughout the movie. They then meet up with Jack and his Choir, Simon, Sam and Eric, and many other characters join in an assembly. Rules are set down, and Ralph is elected to be chief. Ralph calls another assembly, and reminds everyone that they are completely alone on the island, and there are no adults. They are in a state of anarchy (lawlessness). After allocating jobs, laws were loosely set in place to ensure that a society should lightly emerge. Jack and his crew were busy tracking a pig when they were meant to be monitoring the fire. As a result of their lack of involvement they missed an opportunity to get saved by a plane flying ahead. Ralph presses that keeping the signal fire is much more important than hunting and they have displayed a lack of fairness. After a successful hunting expedition, the boys return with a pig which is shared even among the boys, this represent equality as the portions were fair for everyone. Soon, after many more disagreements between Ralph and jack had emerged, they separated into two tribes, Jack went down the savage path turning his crew savage with him. Covering themselves with war-paint, their values consisted of hunting for food and protecting their base camp. Ralphs tribe was based more on ethics; his tribe contained the younger boys and regarded safety and being saved more then a power hierarchy. After a series of murders including Piggys, Jack ...

Causes of Depression in the 1890s

Causes of Depression in the 1890s Synopsis This paper provides acumen into the occurrence of the global depression of the 1890s. It is founded on the words of Henry Lawson ‘there is no prison like the city for a poor man.’ The introductory section provides a general explanation of the occurrence of the depression.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Depression in the 1890s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The background information expounds on the various situations that led to the economic instability that resulted in a crisis. The rest of the paper then explains the specific causes of the depressions and its effects on white men and women. Introduction The 1890s marked a significant shift that caused a prolonged period of economic instability all over the world. The depression had severe implications on the lives of many communities globally. According to Rockoff, employment became a palpable problem due to the closure of gold mi nes and industries in various parts of the world such as Australia, Canada, and the United States1. Floating markets and flooding of both local and export products changed the trends of industrial production since consumers offered incredibly low prices in exchange for commodities. A variety of factors led to the depression of the 1890s. Generally, the depression led to global trade and industry volatility that broke many business interrelationships among nations. Inspired by the depression, Henry Lawson wrote ‘there is no prison like the city for a poor man’. In the light of these words, this paper reveals the causes of the depression in the 1890s and the effects it had on the white women and men. Background of the Depression During the last half of the 19th century, the world underwent a series of technological advancements that played a great role to change the way people lived. Himmelberg unveils that the advancement of the whaling industry together with the inventi on of petroleum revolutionised industrial activities2. This situation led to significant developments in mining and agricultural industries between 1870s and the late 1880s. Countries developed strong interrelations with the British and the European colonies whose financial support enabled the expansion of industries3.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The enormous expansion of the mining industry attracted many people. For instance, the Chinese people immigrated to Australia to seek job opportunities in the gold mines. The discovery of gold resulted in the gold rush era that amplified the interest of other countries in Australia and the United States. Similarly, the agricultural sector also expanded. Production accelerated in textile industries, thus leading to increased exports to Britain, Europe, and other countries that formed huge markets for the growing industries. Some in dustrialising countries, especially Canada, the United States, and Australia gained significant global reputation after enjoying social, economic, and political stability. By the third quarter of1880s, developed economies had entered important business interrelations with these countries. Foreign investments in these countries became evident as alien powers ventured into the most significant economic sectors. British and European colonies continued to fund industrial activities that took place in Canada, America, and Australia. Generally, colossal developments in industrial technology and the acquired financial stability led to overproduction. As a result, export products flooded international markets. This situation reflected a decreasing demand for the products and a similar decrease in price. Apparently, debt was becoming a liability for industrialising countries. By the onset of 1890s, the foreign debt had exceeded the asset base. This situation marked the beginning of depressio n4. The British and European colonies withdrew the financial support they had been offering to support industrial production. Largely, they drained all their bank accounts and demanded repayment. The economic state of affairs worsened to the extent that the debtor nations could not repay the loans it had borrowed from the British and European capitals. What caused the depression? Causes of Depression in the 1890s Overdependence on Foreign Capital Although many developments occurred in the 1870s and the late 1880s, capital remained a problem to many countries. This situation led to borrowing across countries to satisfy the capital demands for the growing sectors of the economy. Many countries were still expanding their production capacities. For instance, Australia relied heavily on foreign capital from the British colonies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Depression in the 1890s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Australian government needed money to expand the gold mines and/or boost the agricultural sector. Mining and agriculture were the main economic activities in Australia. They surpassed production in similar sectors in the United States. To resolve financial shortcomings, Australia borrowed hefty sums from the British colonies to fund the then ongoing industrial developments. Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine disclose that by 1893, the Australian debt exceeded its assets5.The government could not repay the overgrown debt to the British. As a result, British colonies withdrew their financial support from Australia. This situation did not only happen in Australia but also in the United States. The United States had inadequate capital to establish transport networks and gold reserves. As a result, the country relied heavily on European colonies for capital. The Europeans also ventured into the gold investments. By 1892, they had big shares in the gold market. The Europeans established their own banking systems in the United States to ease capital and profits transfer. However, the situation worsened as the United States debt increased to the point of no return. It could not pay back the loans to the European colonies. Consequently, the European investors withdrew the financial support and started exhausting the gold resources in a bid to have their capital paid back. By 1893, the United States entered a period of depression because of overreliance on foreign capital. Both conditions led to the depletion of gold mines in Australia and the United States. According to Himmelberg, the consequences of depleting the gold mines in both countries led to serious depressions that posed panic to the perpetuation of the economies6. Closure of gold mines became inescapable as both economies fell below production capacities. Many people lost their jobs and some foreigners began to flee back to their own countries while others migrated to other countries to seek employments. In dustrialisation and Overproduction Many countries underwent industrial transformation during the 1880s. Successful economies such as Europe and Britain overfunded the growth of industries and other developments in the lesser economies7. This favour led to overgrowth of industries. Due to technological innovation together with foreign fund, companies could handle higher production capacities. The dependency on foreign capital facilitated the ability of establishing more factories and mine plants. Mining was the most significant sector during the colonial period. The gold mines in Australia and the United States expanded significantly, thus attracting more foreign investors. The existence of many mining fields led to overexploitation of gold in Australia and America.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Similarly, the abrupt expansion of the agricultural industry led to the flooding of agricultural products in both the local and foreign markets. Farmers used this opportunity to borrow massive loans to purchase efficient farm machinery that could handle commercial farming duties. Apparently, farmers used these foreign grants to enrich their farms with fertilisers and crop varieties. The use of advanced farming methods in the agricultural industry resulted in increased production of cereals such as wheat and maize for both local consumption and export markets. Similarly, the sugar industry experienced similar agricultural developments, with the United States leading in sugar production. Beef farming agricultural industries overstocked cattle. Overstocking led to the adverse degradation due to overgrazing. Livestock-related products also flooded the market. With many countries experiencing overproduction, many products from the industries flooded the local and the international market . This situation led to incredibly high supply of products with less customer demand. Despite the increased production of agricultural and mine products, countries suffered significant losses since both the local and export markets were flooded with products. The demand for products fell. This occurrence led to insignificant profits. In 1893, the booming business abruptly collapsed, thus resulting in an adverse depression8. Property Speculation Rainey reveals that the nature of business relations that existed between countries up to the late 1880s was highly speculative. The European and British colonies heavily funded investments in localities such as United States and Australia with the aim of reaping more profits in return. The invention of gold mines convinced the booming economies to fund vulnerable economies with foreseeable benefits. However, the anticipation of donor countries did not materialise in the 1890s. The speculative business led to blind funding by the European and British colonies without taking into account the future economic state of the productive countries. Despite the market fluctuations that existed during 1891, financiers provided enough running capital to ensure that the mine factories operated as usual. Sustained availability of capital led to increased supply of gold in the flooded markets, thus reducing the value of gold in the mid-1891. In 1892, the booming economic structure preceded the closure of many gold companies in Australia and the United States. The aftermath of the closure of companies let to the termination of many businesses that dealt with gold merchandise. The closure of the mine companies caused the fall of the North Queensland, Standard, and National Bank9. Further speculative ideals continued as banks were required to fund the ongoing projects, such as the construction of roads and railway lines. This decision marked a financial collapse that indicated a serious depression of the economy. Fragile Banking Structu re The banking system that existent prior to the 1890s depression suffered fragility10. The banking industry grew at the same time with the increase in economic activities. However, the banking system lacked insurance policies that could cover losses in case investors claimed abrupt repayment. The shifting economic state of affairs drastically manoeuvred the way banks operated. The rapid growth of industries in 1880s created a quick pace of development for the banks. Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine reveal that smaller banks had developed alongside the establishment of the National and Standard Bank in various parts of the world11. These banks literally offered unsecured loans at reasonable interest rates that farmers acquired easily. Therefore, the banking system enabled farmers expand production means. However, this trend directly matched the production levels that existed during the 1890s. The value for money deteriorated as a pool of commodities overcrowded local and export markets. Th e gold and silver standards caused monetary inflexibility in the banking system. The value for gold or silver determined the amount of other variables within the stock market. This inflexibility had a very poor implication on business transactions of the 1890s. Speculation of prices led to big losses for the banks. Unaccountable amounts of money that banks released to perpetuate circulation created severe banking instability. Bigham reveals that the significant decline of gold reserves in the United States led to the fall of the treasury. Many investors withdrew all their money from bank accounts. This occurrence led to the fall of many volatile banking institutions. Moreover, in the 1890s, banks and other moneylenders offered very low interest rates in a bid to persuade businesspeople and foreign countries to borrow loans. Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine state that most banking institutions believed that the circulation of loans meant big profits for investors since they would broaden th eir capital base, and in return borrow more loans12. This fiction had very severe implication on the economy. The circulation of loans did not eventually imply an increment in the gross domestic product. Instead, the strategy contributed to the fall of currency value and flooding of the export market, which was a clear indicator of a depressed economy. Poor Governance Perhaps, the overall cause of the depression of the 1890s was poor governance. The rarity of democracy shaped meagre governments. Corruption and lack of concern to state affairs led to irregularities in many sectors of the economy. Mostly, influential leaders and tycoons colluded to invest in the gold and silver mines. Individualistic interest in the high-profit gold and silver merchandise aggravated the urge to source for foreign capital. Governments strove to put high amounts of money into circulation without projecting the effect it had on the demand for future credit13. According to Grant, the effect of corporate g overnance across the globe had highly contributed to the fall of the economy14. The United States, Australia, and Canada engaged in hefty capital bonds with the European and British colonies. Peltzman accentuates that the government decisions led to disproportional growth of the economic sectors that eventually resulted in unbalanced international trade15. Government ignorance also contributed to the depression of the 1890s. For instance, Grant unveils a case in the United States whereby the National Bureau of Economic Research warned of a possible economic decline by the in 189316. However, the government was not concerned with the warning. Ignorance together with the lack of cooperation amongst government officials grouped them according to opinion. The situation resulted in the execution of half-baked decisions that led to economic flux. Effects of the Depression on White Women and Men Underemployment and Unemployment The state of prolonged economic instability led to underemploy ment. Many industries were forced to scale down the wages of their workers in an attempt to resolve the financial stalemate that was getting out of control. The rapid influx of new immigrants from foreign countries increased the population, especially the white settlers who had immigrated to seize job opportunities in gold and silver mines. Initially, the availability of workers weakened the power of bargaining that led to poor salaries. However, the continued depression resulted in unemployment as companies continued to close down. Eventually, governments closed down major sectors of the economy that led to loss of employment for many people17. According to Bigham, over five hundred banks across the world were closed while fifteen thousand other businesses terminated their operations18. The rate of unemployment surpassed ten-percent during the depression period. White women who had acquired jobs in the textile industry lost their jobs after the crash of the cotton market. McMahon a rticle gives an elaborate picture of the status of white women during the depression19. On the other hand, white men worked mostly in the gold and silver mines. The gold and silver market fell drastically with the decreasing demand for export products. Evictions Prior to the 1890s depression, Spencer and Huston confirm that the white settlers characterised the gold fields and arable farms around the world20. White women and men who had settled on foreign lands in search of employment began living in the fear of violent reactions from the natives. White tenant farmers were evicted from the farms. During the start of the depression, many white settlers who worked in the mine industries and banks lost their jobs after the closure of such business activities. This situation compromised their way of living in foreign lands since they could not afford to pay rental fees. Tenants threatened to close down apartments since most of the tenants were unable to raise rental charges. The worst ex periences happened to the white women who had accompanied their husbands in search of a living in the gold-rich localities. During the depression, many women had conflicts with the apartment owners and police. After the eviction from the farms, women struggled to seek food and shelter for their children21. The situation marked the growth of slum settlements that were quite affordable. Incapacity to Support Family The depression made life more difficult for families22. Parents who had lost their jobs in the terminated businesses could not provide adequate basic needs for their families. The situation was worse on women than on men. As Kendall confirms, white women who mostly worked in the farms had no other alternative than to stay at home to take care of the children23  24. Faced with unemployment, many white families disintegrated as men left their families to search alternative means of survival. Some women engaged in prostitution and extramarital relationships with wealthier me n to take care of their children. In addition, the harsh climatic conditions predisposed children and their mothers to diseases. Because of poverty, the kids suffered childhood diseases such as kwashiorkor and marasmus. Their mothers could not afford hospital services. Conclusion Although there is adequate documented literature on the cause of the 1890s depression, there remains unanswered questions about the control measures that previous governments had set in place to regulate the economic growth. The crisis was neither the first nor the last in the world history of economic depressions. Despite the six-year economic fall, governance did not change significantly. Perhaps, similar political opinions led to the Great Depression. However, the notorious times heightened social thoughtfulness as people became interested in modern civilisation. Leaders, especially in the United States, Canada, and Australia, began exercising liberalism on major economic business activities. The conside ration of public opinion in formulating government decisions began to make sense in the economic sector. Banks adopted better ways of money lending and investment. Nevertheless, the situation never improved as every person had thought. The product markets remained unpredictable, with elements of poor leadership flourishing in an unstable economic state. Bibliography Bigham, Darrel. Epilogue: From the 1890s to the Great Depression. Ohio River Valley: University Press of Kentucky, 2005. Garrett, Thomas, Andrew Kozak, and Russell Rhine. â€Å"Institutions and Government Growth: A Comparison of the 1890s and the 1930s.† Review 92, no.2 (2010): 109-119. Grant, Roger. Self Help in the 1890s Depression. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1983. Himmelberg, Robert. The Rise of Big Business and the Beginnings of Antitrust and Railroad Regulation, 1870-1900. New York, NY: Garland, 1994. Kendall, John. Poverty and Government in America: A Historical Encyclopaedia. Reference Reviews 24, n o.5 (2010): 26-27. McMahon, Kathy. The Invisible Women of the Great Depression. Web. Merrett, David. â€Å"The Australian Bank Crashes of the 1890s.† Business History Review 87, no.3 (2013): 407-429. Peltzman, Sam. â€Å"The Growth of Government.† Journal of Law and Economics 23, no.2 (1980): 209-287. Rainey, Sue. Challenges and Triumphs The 1890s and Beyond. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013. Rockoff, Hugh. â€Å"The Great Fortunes of the Gilded Age and the Crisis of 1893.† Research in Economic History 28, no.3 (2012): 233-262. Spencer, Roger, and John Huston. â€Å"The ‘Taylor Rule’ and Three Monetary Regimes. Studies in Economics and Finance 20, no.2 (2002): 78-101. Footnotes 1 Hugh Rockoff, â€Å"The Great Fortunes of the Gilded Age and the Crisis of 1893,† Research in Economic History, 2012, 233. 2 Robert Himmelberg, The Rise of Big Business and the Beginnings of Antitrust and Railroad Regulation, 1870-1900 (New York: Ga rland), 1994. 3 David Merrett, â€Å"The Australian Bank Crashes of the 1890s,† Business History Review 87, no.3 (2013): 407. 4Himmelberg, 13 5 Thomas Garrett, Andrew Kozak, and Russell Rhine, â€Å"Institutions and Government Growth: A Comparison of the 1890s and the 1930s,† Review 92, no.2 (2010): 110. 6 Himmelberg, 24 7 Merrett, 413 8 Rockoff, 237 9 Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine, 114 10Roger Spencer, and John Huston, â€Å"The ‘Taylor Rule’ and Three Monetary Regimes, Studies in Economics and Finance, 2002, 81 11 Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine, p. 114 12 Ibid, p. 115 13Spencer, and Huston, 79 14 Roger Grant, Self Help in the 1890s Depression (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1983), 54. 15 Sam Peltzman, â€Å"The Growth of Government,† Journal of Law and Economics 23, no. 2 (1980): 209. 16 Grant, 55 17Garrett, Kozak, and Rhine, 113 18 Darrel Bigham, Epilogue: From the 1890s to the Great Depression, (Ohio River Valley: University Press of Kentucky, 2005) , 34 19 Kathy McMahon, The Invisible Women of the Great Depression 20 Spencer, and Huston, 81 21Sue Rainey, Challenges and Triumphs The 1890s and Beyond (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013), 219. 22Spencer and Huston, 79 23John Kendall, Poverty and Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia, Reference Reviews, 2010, 26 24 McMahon, Para. 2

Ultrasonic flowmeters in custody transfer and fiscal measurements of natural gas The WritePass Journal

Ultrasonic flowmeters in custody transfer and fiscal measurements of natural gas Introduction Ultrasonic flowmeters in custody transfer and fiscal measurements of natural gas IntroductionULTRASONIC FLOW METERS (USM’S)REFERENCESRelated Introduction As oil and gas flow from numerous wells owned by different firms are merged into one flow line, it is usually necessary to meter the production from the firms separately before it enters the common processing facility (flow line). Actors in this field have to measure the raw materials (crude oil/natural gas) and the finished products (PMS, DPK, etc.) accurately, for the reason that they pay for what comes in and get paid for what goes out and any tiny deviation in their measurements could cost them a huge sums of money per annum. The concept of custody transfer as defined by Dupuis and Hwang (2010) is the transfer of ownership of fluids from one party to another. It is the point at which ownership changes hands for the products being measured. On the other hand fiscal (custody transfer) measurements are the basis for money transfer, either between company and government or between two companies (NFOGM, 2005). In general, custody transfer involves industry standards, National Metrology standards, contractual agreements between parties involved and government regulations and taxation. The flow meters are the measurement instruments used to determine the quantity of flow within the system and various forms of it are used in custody transfer applications among which are ultrasonic meters, coriolis meters, turbine meters, positive displacement meters etc. This piece of exercise will look into some works on ultrasonic and flow meters which is among the most common flow meters in application. ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS (USM’S) Ultrasonic metering technology could be broadly classified into three viz- transit time, Doppler and cross correlation technology. In his work on multipath ultrasonic flow meters for gas measurement, Farestvedt (2003) states that ultrasonic technology uses sound at higher frequencies than what the human ear can hear ( 20 kHz). Most natural gas Ultrasonic meters (USMs) use frequencies around 100-200 kHz, while liquid USMs are in the 1 GHz range. Multipath USMs utilize a minimum of three pairs of transducers; with primary application being fiscal and custody transfer metering of gas and liquid. Lansing (2008) opined that the use of USM’s for fiscal applications has grown substantially over the past several years due in part to its accuracy (0.1%), large turndown (typically 50.1), non-intrusiveness, low maintenance cost, fault tolerant capabilities and integral diagnostics i.e. data for ascertaining the condition of the meter is accessible. Drenthen and de Boer (2010) in their re search work attributed the aforesaid successes of the ultrasonic technology to the manufacturing methods and procedures that result in tight tolerances in the geometry of the meter. While the accuracy of the meter is largely a function of the quality of the geometry and accuracy of the time measurement, the stated performance of the meter can be guaranteed based on a dry calibration only. Therefore, they went further to determine the influence of the manufacturing tolerances on the uncertainty of the measurement, in which their findings have shown that the geometry and dimension of the meter body and the Reynolds (profile correction) factor are the significant sources of uncertainty. A dry calibration procedure performed yields a reproducibility of 0.3% which corresponds to the uncertainty, thus, with high quality fabrication and advanced calibration methods a USM of high fidelity could be achieved. Calibration of an ultrasonic flow meter for natural gas measurement is conducted under the prevailing atmosphere at the flow calibration facility. Most of the systems use natural gas flowing in a pipeline; therefore it is usually impossible to alter parameters such as temperature, pressure and gas composition, each of which has an effect on the speed of sound. Freund et al (2002) investigated whether or not the calibration is still valid if those parameters are modified. They conducted a number of carefully controlled calibrations to measure the effect of changes in these parameters on the calibration of the USM’s initially calibrating a 200mm (8 inch) and two 300 mm (12 inch) ultrasonic meters in the High Pressure Loop at Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) utilizing natural gas at 2.8 MPa (400 psi) which was then changed to nitrogen, providing a 16% change in the speed of sound, equivalent to a natural gas pressure of 4.6 MPa (667 psi). Further test were done at different pr essures using nitrogen. Their findings showed that the change in the speed of sound over the pressure range was within 0.03% of the calculated value. Moreover the test was performed at different temperatures for both the nitrogen and natural gas and calibrations were performed. It was realised that the ultrasonic meters was insensitive to change in speed of sound, temperature and pressure. Hence, they concluded that the calibration of an ultrasonic meter at one set of conditions does not affect its accuracy when it’s been utilized under another, including using different gases. However accumulation of contamination in the pipeline conveying the gas affects the accuracy of the meter as corroborated by Gorman (2006) and Zanker and Brown (2000), it reduces the internal diameter, shorten the transient time and hence a higher velocity reading and changes in the velocity profile due to surface roughness, but with regular maintenance of the pipeline, this anomaly could be avoided. In several years, ultrasonic meters have become one of the fastest growing new technologies in the natural gas arena and having established that the USM’s could perform well under different operating conditions, it is paramount to look further to see how it functions in the measurement of gas for custody transfer purposes. When using a USM for custody transfer of natural gas, the following factors should be considered for effective fiscal metering to be achieved.   The Meter tube alignment to and away from the ultrasonic sensor must be aligned perfectly. American Gas Association Article 9 allows the tube-to-meter match to be within 1.0%. Noise emanating from control valves can interfere with an ultrasonic sensor’s measurement, so a good practice is to place valves downstream of meters (if possible), put as much distance as possible between valves and meters, and put some bends in the piping to reduce noise. â€Å"Noise trap† tees are very effective in reducing valve noise. Temperature sensors location of is critical for maximum accuracy. For gas, AGA 9 recommends the thermowell be installed between two and five diameters downstream of the flowmeter in a uni-directional system, and three diameters from the meter in a bidirectional installation. One flowmeter is designated as the flow prover. This is a flowmeter of exceptional accuracy, and one that has been calibrated and tested recently and lastly a flow computer which performs the industry-standards flow calculations and serves as the cash register of the entire system (Dupuis and Hwang). In conclusion, it could be seen from the analysis of the various researches and writings on ultrasonic flow meters that despite the fact that it has a very high accuracy level typically less than 0.1% (Drenthen and de Boer, 2010) and can operate under different conditions, its performance could be affected by the accumulation of contaminants in the pipeline conveying the natural gas. REFERENCES Dupuis, E., Hwang, G., Custody Transfer: Flowmeter as a Cash Register, Control Engineering [online] Available at controleng.com/index.php?id=483cHash=081010tx_ttnews[tt_news]=39535 [Accessed 11 April 2011] Norwegian Society for Oil and Gas Measurements, 2005, handbook of Multiphase Flow meterinng.[pdf].2nd ed. Stocholm. Available at nfogm.no/docup/dokumentfiler/MPFM_Handbook_Revision2_2005_(ISBN-82-91341-89-3).pdf [Accessed 11 April 2011] Drenthen, J.G., de Boer, G., (2001), The manufacturing of ultrasonic flow meters, Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12(2001), pp. 89-99 Freund et al., (2002), North Sea Flow measurement Workshop, Operation of Ultrasonic Flow Meters at Conditions Different Than Their Calibration, [pdf] Available at http://letton-hall.com/docs/publications_docs/Operation%20of%20Ultrasonic%20Flow%20Meters%20at%20Conditions%20Different%20Than%20Their%20Calibration.pdf [Accessed 10 April 2011] Gorman, J., (2006), Contaminant Accumulation Effect on Gas Ultrasonic Flow Meters International School of Hydrocarbon Measurement Class #1340 [pdf] Available at ceesi.com/docs_library/events/ishm2006/Docs/1340.pdf [Accessed 10 April 2011] Zanker, J. k., Brown, G.J., (2000), North Sea Flow measurement Workshop, The Performance of a Multi-Path Ultrasonic Meter With Wet Gas [pdf] Available at http://letton-hall.com/docs/publications_docs/THE%20PERFORMANCE%20OF%20A%20MULTIPATH%20ULTRASONIC%20METER%20WITH%20WET%20GAS.pdf[Accessed 10 April 2011]

Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategy - Essay Example Over the last few years, mobile communication industry has increased in significance and size to grow into one of the key industries in Europe, overtaking pharmaceuticals and is now at per with aerospace firms. In the year 2010, the total revenues in the mobile handset market amounted to over 174 billion Euros and these figures are expected to keep going up as the market grows and the existing competing firms increase their production capacity as well as consumer base. Currently, mobile services are virtually ubiquitous with coverage almost at 100%; in Europe, the mobile penetration rate is well over 120% that towers over Japans, and America’s 100% and 104% respectively (Whitehead and Philips et al., nod). This is representative of over 600 subscriptions held by half a million Europeans, bearing in mind that many have more than one SIM card. Understandably, mobile services are the main form of communication, and they are used across all social, economic and age groups in Europ e. Because of the high revenues and rapid expansion, many mobile firms have joined the mobile phone industry and this has resulted in intense competition as the firms try to capture the lion’s share. ... Analysis of the Competitiveness of the Industry As aforementioned, the mobile industry is extremely competitive in Europe and firms are using all manner of strategies to keep ahead of the competition; this often involve developing new and more attractive technologies such as Android. This direct competition can attributed to saturations in the market which make it difficult to â€Å"Grow around the competition† (Dess et al.,2012, p.181).Firms are also producing more effective and convenient devices such as smart phones and tablets; furthermore, many of the new gadgets are being priced at comparably lower prices. One of the main competitors in the mobile industry in Western Europe is Samsung; today Samsung has evolved itself from a nondescript South Korean firm to become a dominant player in the global mobile market (Cellan-Jones 2013). Until 2012, Nokia had been the world’s leading brand in mobile phone production and exported more handsets as compared to other firm, ho wever, Samsung electronics, which also leads in the manufacture of TVs and screens overtook Nokia to become the world’s top mobile firm. Expert’s project that Samsung is likely accounts for 29% of all the mobile handsets shipments globally; on the other hand, Nokia’s share in the global shipments went down from 30% to 24 % within the same year (Deagon 2012). Samsung’s success can be attributed to innovative and proactive strategies; while its products tend to be pricey; it invests in the latest technology such as android for its devices and ensures that it gives its customers their money’s worth. Samsung has also diversified more than any other firm and in addition to holding the top market position for mobile handsets it

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Business Questions on Ethics, Strategic Plan etc - Essay Example Religion is not just about beliefs. In fact, the religion guides its followers towards a complete way of life that is ethically justified and is meant to spread peace in the society. The different standards of ethics amongst communities dwelling in the same place fundamentally arise from the difference of religious teachings of the different communities. People living in a certain place have their customs, values, and traditions that are a reflection of the geographic, political, and socioeconomic history of that place. Over the time, the customs and traditions approved by a vast majority of the people are recognized as ethics in that society. Ethics play a very important role in the business today. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that the world today is not as healthy and clean place to live in as it once was. This is primarily attributed to the false and objectionable business practices that have been in place over a long time in the history. There is a greater emphasis from the society upon healthy business activities to reduce the negative environmental effects of the business. The term used for environment-friendly businesses is â€Å"green business†. Companies are encouraged to compete with one another to become greener as it is seen as one of the pre-requisites of success for the company. On the other hand, businesses today are expected to fulfill the demands of corporate social responsibility, which essentially means that a business that is only profitable to the business owner today is not sufficient. In order for the business owner to be successful and gain competitive advantage, it is imperative that the business benefits the society as well. It may benefit the society in a number of ways that include but are not limited to reducing unemployment, finding the cure of diseases, creating knowledge, and doing research and development for the benefit of the society. Over the time, people have become more conscious about their health and safet y which has imparted a need for the regulatory bodies to oblige the entrepreneurs to abide by the rules of ethics so that the business can be made greener, and its positive role in the development of the society as a whole can be enhanced. Q. 2 Answer The strategic plan can be considered as a kind of business plan, though there are certain differences between the two. The main purpose of making a strategic plan is to implement an organization’s strategic direction and manage it, thus it is made once the organization or business has been established already whereas the business plan is required at the stage of starting a new business, gathering the required funds, and directing its operations. In this way, the strategic plan is helpful for the businesses that are already established but need to be expanded but the business plan makes an entrepreneur prepared to commence a new business. â€Å"The business plan examines the business’ potential for success, the competing industry and the business’ competitive advantages† (Smith). The timeframe covered by the strategic plan is different from that covered by the business plan. While the time covered by a strategic plan ranges from three to five years in general, the business plan is commonly made to last for a year only. The strategic plan is critical to enlarge the revenues and maximize the return on investment of a business as it prioritizes the resources while the business plan is needed when the entrepreneur needs funding. The strategic pla

Chinese media on the relations between government and media Essay

Chinese media on the relations between government and media - Essay Example To start with, the story of Chinese media commercialization started in 1978 and formally broke the previous subsidized propaganda epoch for local media (Zhao 1998, p. 52). However, the real situation with economic reform did not change media dramatically and government saved its authoritarian mechanism of ruling national news making. Thus, current tension in the relations between Chinese government and society have a long-term story (Spence 2013, p. 700). In fact, Shirk (2011) supports this idea by providing evidence that CCP occupied all the media (including periodic, television, radio and later the Internet) within the country after 1979 (p. 1). Precisely, the fact that right after the reform (in 1979) there still existed 69 totally controlled by the government newspapers signalizes of rather remained propaganda than new type of journalism in the country. Even though certain magazines experienced commercialization in 1980s, they originated from â€Å"politically safe† areas, like fashion and computers . In practice, this tendency results in cases of silence on potentially scandalous stories about Communist Party members, as it happened with Li Zhen. In other words, the early period of commercialization concerned only the sphere of advertising as â€Å"the new lifeblood†. Thus, it is relevant to state that media reform happened without radical change of relations between the government and Chinese society. In this situation, further commercialization did not change the previous control of CCP over social diversity.

International economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

International economics - Essay Example The main advantage of this system was the elimination of the costs of converting currencies and exchange rates uncertainties. This system also brought with it increased transparency, efficiency, and inward investment. Among the disadvantages was the one size fits all policy. When one country was doing badly and the rest were booming economically, the central bank might be interested in increasing the interest rates, this would make the situation worse for the country experiencing a recession. Also some countries may be reluctant to improve their economy with the hope that countries doing well would bail them out. Portugal, Greece and Spain have been the poor performers of the Eurozone. These countries have shown the disadvantages of having a fixed currency regime. Ever since these nations adopted the Euro, they have been unable to implement the required measures for independent monetary policy in order to mitigate the effects of an economic downfall in the Eurozone. European Union leaders have been giving stabilization packages to bail out these countries and maintain stability in the Eurozone but these countries are still lagging behind. Despite the many advantages a fixed currency regime has to offer, Portugal Greece and Spain prove

Expansion of Aritizia Boutique Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Expansion of Aritizia Boutique - Research Paper Example With a population of over 800000 people, Indianapolis is the largest of the three cities. Colorado Springs follows second and last is Ann Arbor. The economic indicators of the three cities are also good. All have a higher employment rates. The city with the highest employment rates is Ann Arbor. Competition is a major challenge in the three cities. All the three cities have well established Boutiques in the market with the leading in competition being Indianapolis. Colorado Springs also has a number of boutiques, which has been in the market for a very long time. Climate however is on the side of Colorado Springs. With over 300 days of sunshine, Colorado Springs remains the best place to sell light clothes. Comparing all the above factors, Colorado Springs is the best city to expand the Aritizia products.   This research involves looking at the various cities that the expansion is to occur and identifying the various aspects of the city that will make it the best option for expansi on. After all the data is collected, analysis takes place to come up with the best city among the various options. In this paper, analysis of three cities occurs to know which among them, suits the best option for expansion of Aritizia boutique. The three cities are; Indianapolis, in Indiana, Ann Arbor, of Michigan and Colorado springs of Colorado. The main sources of information used in this paper come from various books about the small American cities, the internet and various newspapers. Analysis of the population trend of each city, its overall economic group in the past decade comes about to show the best city among the three cities listed.  Ã‚  

Chinese media on the relations between government and media Essay

Chinese media on the relations between government and media - Essay Example To start with, the story of Chinese media commercialization started in 1978 and formally broke the previous subsidized propaganda epoch for local media (Zhao 1998, p. 52). However, the real situation with economic reform did not change media dramatically and government saved its authoritarian mechanism of ruling national news making. Thus, current tension in the relations between Chinese government and society have a long-term story (Spence 2013, p. 700). In fact, Shirk (2011) supports this idea by providing evidence that CCP occupied all the media (including periodic, television, radio and later the Internet) within the country after 1979 (p. 1). Precisely, the fact that right after the reform (in 1979) there still existed 69 totally controlled by the government newspapers signalizes of rather remained propaganda than new type of journalism in the country. Even though certain magazines experienced commercialization in 1980s, they originated from â€Å"politically safe† areas, like fashion and computers . In practice, this tendency results in cases of silence on potentially scandalous stories about Communist Party members, as it happened with Li Zhen. In other words, the early period of commercialization concerned only the sphere of advertising as â€Å"the new lifeblood†. Thus, it is relevant to state that media reform happened without radical change of relations between the government and Chinese society. In this situation, further commercialization did not change the previous control of CCP over social diversity.

Expansion of Aritizia Boutique Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Expansion of Aritizia Boutique - Research Paper Example With a population of over 800000 people, Indianapolis is the largest of the three cities. Colorado Springs follows second and last is Ann Arbor. The economic indicators of the three cities are also good. All have a higher employment rates. The city with the highest employment rates is Ann Arbor. Competition is a major challenge in the three cities. All the three cities have well established Boutiques in the market with the leading in competition being Indianapolis. Colorado Springs also has a number of boutiques, which has been in the market for a very long time. Climate however is on the side of Colorado Springs. With over 300 days of sunshine, Colorado Springs remains the best place to sell light clothes. Comparing all the above factors, Colorado Springs is the best city to expand the Aritizia products.   This research involves looking at the various cities that the expansion is to occur and identifying the various aspects of the city that will make it the best option for expansi on. After all the data is collected, analysis takes place to come up with the best city among the various options. In this paper, analysis of three cities occurs to know which among them, suits the best option for expansion of Aritizia boutique. The three cities are; Indianapolis, in Indiana, Ann Arbor, of Michigan and Colorado springs of Colorado. The main sources of information used in this paper come from various books about the small American cities, the internet and various newspapers. Analysis of the population trend of each city, its overall economic group in the past decade comes about to show the best city among the three cities listed.  Ã‚  

Ancient Near Eastern Thought And The Old Testament Essay Example for Free

Ancient Near Eastern Thought And The Old Testament Essay The opening chapter begins by orienting the reader to the idea of comparative study, or the area of study that strives to understand things within their broader cultural context. In the case of this book, the goal is to understand the Old Testament within the context of the Ancient Near Eastern milieu. Walton explains that over the years there has been much debate on the issue of comparative study and the way in which it is to be exercised. Scholars, always biased by their presuppositions, tend to enter the argument negating the importance of the Old Testament on the  one side, or defending the inerrancy of Scripture so vehemently that the cultural context is lost. Walton poses a better way, namely, accepting the study of the Ancient Near Eastern cultures as important and academic in their own right while attempting to comprehend the Old Testament in light of what modern scholarship is learning about the ancient world. Studies of this time period often center around who borrowed what literature from whom, but Walton insists that this is not the main issue that ought to be dealt with. Rather, studies of the literature and literary genres of the ANE should assist in the broader understanding of the society. Walton observes several areas that the text will deal with in further details. He first puts emphasis on appreciating the literary genres and how they function as a foundation to any quest into comparative studies. In order to understand the Old Testament fully, one must know how the genres were written and how they are to be interpreted within their cultural context. Secondly, Walton notes religious practices and the necessity of understanding them clearly. Ritual sacrifices, priests, and ceremonial cleanliness are things that are foreign to readers in a modern context. Additionally, a crucial part of understanding the Old Testament is understanding not only the practices of the Israelites, but the practices of the other people groups that made up the ANE. Finally, it is important to understand the theology of a people group and the broader views of God and the gods within the ANE in order to interpret the text well. Walton closes the first chapter by pointing out that comparative studies assists study of the Bible in at least four major areas: (1) history of the ANE, (2) archeological understanding of the lifestyle, (3) literature, and (4) language. CHAPTER 2 Chapter two deals with the different ways in which comparative studies are used within current scholarship. Walton first attends to the ways in which comparative studies are being utilized within critical scholarship. As additional information is unearthed about the ANE, many of the ideas once held in critical scholarship have been challenged. Previous assumptions about texts and thoughts, primarily based on evolution, are being reconsidered. Critical scholarship has a history of assuming that critical thought and religious practice had simple beginnings and have evolved through time. Research is showing these assumptions in source criticism,  reaction criticism, and issues of dating to be incorrect in light of the data. Though, as Walton notes, there has been some resistance to comparative studies within the circles of critical scholarship, most of the data being provided is being accepted and studied at greater length. Walton also notes the use of comparative studies in polemics and dismisses such uses due to the fact that the text is not approached in a scholarly manner. Scholars of a more conservative persuasion, primarily Evangelicals, and others termed confessional scholars by Walton, have had a more difficult time adopting comparative studies. As further information has been gathered about the relation of the Pentateuch to ANE literature and as new data has arisen through archeology, confessional scholars have felt their longstanding foundations threatened, which has caused their hesitancy to fully embrace comparative studies. Many feel that maintaining the Bibles unique status among other ANE literature is of supreme importance and continue to argue that comparative studies degrades the inspiration of the text thus making Gods word subject to mans interpretation. Walton closes the chapter by proposing an integrated approach including critical analysis to better understand the history of the Bible, unbiased and educated defense of the biblical text, and solid exegesis that guards the reader from understanding the text outside of its context. Walton argues that the field of comparative studies must be important not only to serious scholars, but also to anyone committed to truly knowing and understanding the Word of God. CHAPTER 3 Chapter three is dedicated to a brief overview of the literary styles of the ANE and gives examples of the styles from some of the primary people groups. The discussion begins with myth, which was one of the primary ways that ancient civilizations explained their present reality. Short examples from several cultures are given and include many parallels to the Biblical stories such as the creation account and the flood. Others bear little resemblance to the Bible such as the stories of the fighting gods of Akkadian myths. Next are literary texts and epics which tell the stories of the kings of different lands, their struggles to power, and their exploits while ruling. The most famous is the Gilgamesh epic, which follows Gilgamesh on his journey to find immortality. The third literary type is ritual texts  which, as the name says, follow the rituals of the people groups of the ancient world. Rituals were important as they helped humans communicate with and persuade the gods. Fourth, Walton deals with divination and incantation texts which were used to divine the meanings of omens, undo evil spells, and ward off bad spirits. These are dealt with at length later in the book. Fifth, he explains the significance of the use of letters exchanged between kings gives the modern day reader noteworthy information about the culture of the past. Walton then moves to royal inscriptions which were recordings ordered by kings. They could contain items such as details on how a building was to be constructed, conquests, details of how to handle their succession, and other various accomplishments and instructions. In a similar vein are annals and chronicles which detailed the succession of rulers through the history of an empire, coupled with their important victories in war. Treaties were another piece of literature that was used to establish rules between kings and rulers of different lands. The next section deals with government and points out law collections and legal documents as important literary devices. While law collections detail the ways in which society was to run and how people were to behave, legal documents dealt with contracts for marriages, children, family estates, and court rulings. Religious literature was also common in the Ancient Near East. Psalms and hymns were ways to give adoration to the gods so that they would be pleased and provide for the people. Wisdom literature contained details about how to make good choices, but also contained laments and writings concerning ethics. Prophetic writing was another important communication because it contained communication from the gods which was a vital part of the life of the ancient cities. Kings sought answers to their problems from the gods and they received them through the prophets. These prophesies were often recorded. Walton closes the chapter by noting various miscellaneous writings as well as arc hives, which were groups of literature often found together which contained all sorts of different information. CHAPTER 4 Chapter four opens the third section of the book which is an overview of the religious views of the ANE. In order to fully understand the Old Testament and the interactions of the Hebrew people with God, and other false gods, it is important to understand how the religious system worked.  Throughout the chapter Walton shows how other empires worshiped and compares those beliefs to beliefs held by Israel. First and foremost, the other people groups of the ANE were polytheistic and therefore, the idea of one God was odd in itself. Add to this the fact that the Israelite God was not made and had simply always been, and the oddities became significantly greater. Not only was the norm polytheistic, but there were great stories about how the gods came to be, their battles with one another, their failures, and their flaws. The gods were defined by the things that they did. Earlier chapters note the fact that the culture of this time period was highly focused on function. Again, due to the polytheism, the gods functioned as a team of sorts. The God of the Bible is, indeed, three in one, but nonetheless one God who is all powerful. The Old Testament does make mention of a council that God used to make decisions, but this is altogether different from the unstable group of random gods of other people groups which were completely separate, with different gifts and skills, and with significant flaws. Walton then turns to the roles that the gods played in the cosmos as well as their attributes. Whereas Yahweh is completely outside of the cosmos, the gods of the ANE were associated with elements of the cosmos. So while Yahweh is the creator of the sun, the moon, and the waters, the gods of other polytheistic religions actually were one with those elements. They had no life or meaning independent from those elements. For instance, the god of the seas controlled the sea and was the sea itself. There was no distinction and no separation as with the God of the Israelites. The attributes of the gods were in some ways similar to Yahweh, but were altogether different in others. The most notable difference is the fact that while Yahweh is completely other, the gods were inherently human in their characteristics. They argued with one another, they needed to be flattered with prayers that did not necessarily communicate their true nature, they were limited in their geographic location, they procreated, and they failed. People of the ANE had attributed to the gods of their myths the same characteristics that they saw in their everyday lives. The main difference between the gods and humans was that the gods were simply stronger. All other characteristics were intrinsically human. This is a far cry from the God of the Bible who is holy, not bound by anything, and never fails. The chapter closes by dealing with a very important part of the  makeup of the gods, their divine attributes. In Evangelical circles God is not simply described as being loving. Rather, He is love itself. God does not simply rule in a just way, he is the epitome of justice. The God of the Old Testament is perfection in every area of everything. There is no flaw or limitation in him. His wisdom, love, justice, and mercy are not only perfect in and of themselves, but God is those things. The gods of the ANE were significantly different in that the attributes that they had were directly linked to their actions. There were no inherent attributes in them, or as Walton says, deity is as deity does. The duties that each god had were the attributes that they carried. CHAPTER 5 Chapter five is dedicated to the understanding of the role of the temple and the accompanying rituals in the ANE. Walton first deals with the role that the temple played. Temples were created not primarily for worship of the gods, but were the places where the gods resided while on earth. This was a sacred space that was to be free from all profanity and reserved for the rest and worship of that god. Each temple contained an idol, like a plaque or a statue. This statue was not simply a rendering; the commonly held view was that the god actually inhabited the idol in some way without actually becoming the idol. Because of this, the ancients believed that the creation of the idol was supernaturally overseen and organized by that specific god so that the idol would meet its expectations. This process was familiar to the Old Testament prophets and they prophesied against the idols and false gods. Attached to the temple was at least one ziggurat, which was a structure that encased a stair way which served as a portal for the god from the heavenly realm into the earthly temple. These were large structures and this was probably what Moses was referring to when he spoke of the tower of Babel in Genesis. So in opposition to common Sunday school teaching, the tower of Babel was not meant to reach to the heavens, but was a portal meant to bring heaven to earth. The temple was the most important structure in ancient culture. It was the center of everything and, due to the fact that the god inhabited the temple, was the source of all things good. Temples were viewed as the center of the cosmos in the ancient world. Walton observes that in this area, the Bible and ancient myths agree in that the presence of the god, or Yahweh in the case of the Bible, was what made the  space important. He claims that the Garden of Eden was not a literal geographic place on earth, rather it was a place in the cosmos where God dwelt. The presence of God was what made Eden special. The same goes for the temples of the ancients. The presence of the gods made them the focal point of life. Not only was the temple the central point of worship, but also of law, the wealth of the city, and the social activities of the people. The focal point of daily activities was the temple. That God would inhabit the tabernacle, or the temple, therefore, makes perfect sense in the culture of the ANE. Solomons temple is used as the focal point of the city, where God dwelt and where worship was given. Here, again, the ancient myths and the Bible agree. Harvest, weather, health, wealth, and victory in battle, among other things, were all controlled by the gods in the ANE. Due to this fact, the rituals that were performed for the gods in the temple were important to the livelihood of the people. The gods had to be appeased and the forces of evil and chaos needed to be held at bay. Rituals, therefore, were the way in which humans interacted with the gods to make sure that they were happy and that the cosmos was in balance. Blood sacrifices were not unique to the Israelites, but were a common trend of the day. However, unlike the other tribes of the ANE, the Israelites did not use incantations. Furthermore, while faith in God was of primary concern for the Israelites, action and involvement in the cult of the temple were of paramount importance. CHAPTER 6 In the midst of everything that was happening in and around the temple, the way in which the common people of the land practiced religion was different. The contrast between the religion of the state and the religion of the common people is the focus of this chapter. Religion in the city environment is handled first. As mentioned in previous chapters, the gods were to be served, taken care of, and appeased. For these reasons, the idols mentioned in chapter five were cared for just as one might take care of a new born baby. They were woken, fed, pampered, and put to bed at night. The problem was that there was no way to know if the people were, indeed, pleasing the god. Without any revelation there was no way to know if the practices were actually making any difference in the temperament of the god. Each god was assigned roles and responsibilities, and each one, in turn, delegated their responsibilities back to the people. For instance, a certain god might be in charge of keeping justice, but those responsibilities were meted out to the king. However, in the midst of all of this service to the gods, the gods were prone to be temperamental. Gods would change their minds and moods often. Diviners might offer solutions like giving more money or upgrading the temple, but again, without revelation the gods were unknowable and this kept the ancient people always guessing and attempting new tactics to change their situations. Yahweh stood in stark contrast to the gods of the polytheistic pantheon. God has no need of anything from man. He is not contained. All of his choices are perfect and right. What is most important, however, is the fact that He communicated with his people so that they were fully aware of what he expected and in order that they might know the consequences for their actions. The religion of the common people was significantly different however. Whereas the temple and the workings of the state were dedicated to one of the higher and more powerful gods, the common people had individual gods, lower on the polyth eistic totem pole, that they worshiped and attempted to appease. Usually devotion to these gods was passed down from generation to generation. Abrahams initial communication with and faith in God, before the Hebrews were a people, fit the idea of a personal god. The primary goal of having a personal god was to bring the family social success, stature, and wealth. The relationship with these gods was different from he relationship that Abraham had with Yahweh. Just as with the state, there was no real heart-connect with the god, no real desire to know him and be like him. The goal was to keep the god happy so that the family would reap the benefits. This attitude presented itself in the weak prayer life of the people. When a family’s personal god was not doing the things that caused their family success, the family was looked down upon in society. It was clear that the family was doing something wrong that was not satisfying the demands of the god. The emphasis was not on the wrongdoing, but on the view society held of your family. Prayers and ritual acts to please the god focused on restoration of respect in the town, not restoration of a relationship with the god. Ethics and morals were also tightly bound to the gods and the balance of society. There were not ethical norms as there are in the modern context. Everything revolved around the gods and what they wanted. Because of the idea of continuity among all  of the realms, morals were not necessarily important. Whatever it took to keep society orderly and balanced was what took priority. So, if orgies or other sexual actions pleased the gods and kept things in order, then it was perfectly acceptable. There was no sense that things of this nature might be considered immoral. These absolutes can only be found in a God who guides one to moral absolutes and makes clear what is morally right and wrong. This is what God did as he revealed himself to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob orally, and how he set up guidelines with the nation of Israel at Mt. Sinai. God does what the artificial gods of the pagans could not do. He revealed himself so that the Israelites could know his will and follow it. He committed to them in a covenant relationship and taught them how to live within that relationship. He showed them how to strive for holiness, by imitating him, an idea that was otherwise nonexistent. He showed them how to have the best possible life, and ultimately, developed a relationship with them personally. CHAPTER 7 Chapter seven is the first chapter in the fourth part of the book, which is dedicated to the cosmos. The seventh chapter in particular deals with how the people of the ANE viewed the makeup of the cosmos. Whereas, due to science and exploration, people in modern times understand that the earth is round and that it travels around the sun while spinning on its own axis, the views of how the cosmos functioned were significantly different in the ANE. Understanding the ancient view of cosmological geography is vital in comprehending the worldview of the ANE. Many of the people groups of the ANE understood the cosmos to be layered. The Earth was the middle layer with heaven above and the netherworld below. The earth was thought to stand still and the sun was thought to travel on a track up on one side of the earth, across the sky, and down into the netherworld in the evening. In some myth systems it was believed that the sky, which was believed to be solid, was supported by mountains at the edges of the earth, while yet other traditions claimed that the earth was supported by giant columns. In addition, ANE myths believed that the sky held the waters back and that when precipitation came, the water was falling through cracks or holes in the sky layer. It is important to note that the world of the ANE was primarily concerned about function over mere existence. Therefore, the  cosmos had no importance in and of itself, but only within the context of the gods using nature to accomplish their desires and dole out their punishments. Regardless of the different views held within the ancient tribes, they all viewed the area that they inhabited as the center of the cosmos. Walton shows that this view about the makeup up of the cosmos was held by the Israelites as well. We have no reason to believe that the modern view of the cosmos was held by the Israelites. Throughout the Old Testament we see references that show that the Israelites held to the common views of the cosmos first and foremost because that was the normal view in those days, but also because God never revealed to them any other way by which to understand the cosmos. CHAPTER 8 Chapter eight handles the important issues of the origin and order of the cosmos. Gaining knowledge about the origin of the world gives excellent insight into the creation account and shows the student of the Bible the important value that God places on humans. As mentioned earlier it is necessary to understand that the culture of the ANE valued function over existence. For something to merely exist was not nearly as important as the function of that thing. This idea has significant repercussions when it comes to the study of cosmogony. Moderns often read the creation account and assume that God was calling things into existence, but this view would not have made much sense to anyone writing in the ANE. It would have been a foreign idea because to simply bring something into existence was of little consequence. Creation was more focused on a purpose than it was on making an object available. One of the first and most important steps in the making functional process was the naming of things, which fits nicely into the creation account of the Bible. God creates and names. This naming process kick starts that object’s function. Walton makes some very interesting points when it comes to the Biblical account of creation. He says that it should be understood, from the text, that the account in the first chapter of Genesis is not one of God creating things that did not exist, but bringing order and function to those things. The reader can notice that Genesis 1never claims that there was nothing. It simply communicates that the earth was without form; it had no order or function. He mentions that on days one through three God does not simply create light,  water and vegetation, but that he was bringing function to those things by giving light the function of time-keeping, water the function of the climate, and vegetation the function of providing food for man and animal s. Therefore, unlike the gods of the other tribes, the God of the Bible gives function and destiny to all things from the very beginning. He is not trying to manage the cosmos and the functions therein, he has already created and set them in motion with specific purpose. His initial purposes for all things cannot be changed and need no management. The chapter closes by explaining the temple as a depiction of the cosmos. This idea is touched on in chapter five and is reiterated here. The place of rest for the gods was their temple. When everything was in order they were able to relax in their sacred space. God, however, is bigger than anything that he has created and uses the earth as his footstool. The Temple of Yahweh was modeled after the cosmos to show this relationship. CHAPTER 9 Literature, religion, and the cosmos have all been dealt with thus far. Now Walton turns to how people functioned and were understood in the context of the ANE. The first step, which is the focus of chapter nine, is to understand how people thought about the past and recorded history. Any conversation about humans naturally begins with their origins. The biblical account of the creation of humans is unique from the myths of the ANE in several ways. First is the fact that the Genesis account sets up Adam and Eve as the sole couple from which all other humans come, known as monogenesis. In other myths, humans are made in more of a group setting, polygenesis, where there is no singular couple from which all human life stems. Secondly is the difference in substance from which humans are created. The biblical account notes that God used the dust of the ground to create Adam and that He breathed life into his nostrils, whereas other matter, including clay and body parts from conquered gods , were used in other myths. The conversation then moves from how humans were made to what pieces or parts they actually contain. Walton notes that there remains disagreement as to whether humans are a unified whole or if they are separated somehow by body, mind, and spirit. Walton notes that due to language barriers, the words describing the human makeup from the ANE are difficult to translate and explain. The Egyptians used several terms to  describe how humans were made. Ka was the natural character of a person based on their ties to their lineage. Ba was the way in which they displayed themselves to society, similar to a reputation. Akh was the soul or spirit of a person that was said to live on after death. The Israelites, on the other hand, used different terms. Perhaps, due to the aforementioned language issues, it is best to quote Walton in this explanation. He says that, nephesh is related to awareness and perception while ruah is related to consciousness and vitality. Finally, the chapter deals with the role of humans in the cosmos. There is a very important distinction to be made in this area between the views of the Egyptians, Akkadians, and Sumarians and the views of the Israelites. The former saw the gods as the center of the cosmos and humans as an unimportant byproduct to assist the gods and appease them, whereas the latter saw their role as priests created to serve God. The Bible gives an important role to humans as the pinnacle of Gods creation, and this idea is unique in the ANE. CHAPTER 10 Chapter ten addresses the recording of history and the mindset that drove the guidelines that the people of the ANE followed in recording history. Furthermore, the chapter shows what that set of guidelines communicates about the mindset of the recorders. As this text has clearly stated, the mindset of the people of the ANE was focused around the gods. The modern mindset is one that focuses on the things that people can see and experience. Modern history is based on physical facts. The cognitive environment of the ANE was such that natural proof or fact was not the main concern. The ancient culture was focused on the gods and what means had been employed to please and serve the gods. Deity was the focal point of historiography. Furthermore, the goals of history were different than the goals of a modern-day journalist. While the journalist of today is concerned about facts and events, the ancients were concerned about the meaning of those events. Due to the fact that everything that happened was tied to the gods in some way, history was the result of what was happening in the supernatural world. These happenings, of course, were of primary importance, so little significance was placed on the events themselves. Rather, the emphasis was on deciphering what information these  events were communicating about the actions of the gods. The way in which events of history worked together and the purpose behind them was also significant. There was a sense of an underlying through-line beneath the surface of every event in history. A good example of this mindset would be the way in which Christians believe that amidst all of the surface things in life, God is working out his perfect will. What happened in each event was not nearly as important as how that event may have furthered a larger piece of the narrative of life. The differences in mindset between the ancients and moderns continue in the area of explaining time. Today most people think of time as linear; the present is now, the past behind, and the future ahead. This was not the normative view of time in the ANE. It was as if the person standing on the time line were turned around, looking into the past with the future behind them. Their view of the past and how it affected the future was most important. The final portion of the chapter focuses on the necessity of understanding the form in which history was written in order to fully realize the meaning of the history itself. Often writers were not necessarily attempting to provide legitimate history telling in their narratives. Because of this, the facts leading up to the conclusion may or may not be accurate because there was no need for them to be so. Much narrative was fiction. Therefore, to understand the writings of the ANE, one must realize that narrative is not primarily concerned about the events, as mentioned above, but on the outcomes, which affects ones ability to glean truth-telling history from the narrative writings. Additionally, the source of the literature, who it promotes, and the audience it was intended for all play an important role in attempting to understand the history of the times. These values, as Walton calls them, play a significant role in how ancient history is to be interpreted. The aforementioned points affect the way in which the Old Testament is read and understood. The history that is recorded in the Old Testament, though it is divinely inspired, must still be understood in the context in which it was written, taking into consideration the values, writers, intended audience, poetics, and importance of deity. CHAPTER 11 Chapter eleven moves to the next step by considering how people lived their day to day lives. Divination, mentioned briefly in other chapters, is  now fully explained. Divination was the attempt to try to deduce from a god the future, or to gain a better comprehension of that god. There were two types of divination, inspired and deductive. Inspired divination involved a message from the gods through a human messenger, while deductive divination included a message from the gods sent through natural means like events or weather. People who engaged in this process were known by different names depending on the type of divination they practiced and the type of omens they used. Inspired messages often came through prophets and dreams. Official prophets were paid and trained by the king to serve as intermediaries between him and the gods. Others, outside of the kings employ that received random messages were known as informal prophets. Dreams generally came to people by happenstance, and because there was so much to decipher, there was much written in the area of dream interpretation. Deductive divination was a reading of signs and events done by trained people. Signs or omens might be found in the sky, through the weather, the stars, the waters, organs of dead animals, lot casting, and other phenomena in nature. Attempting to divine answers about the future helped people feel a sense of control and normalcy. The Bible employs inspired divination as God speaks through the prophets and assists Daniel and Joseph, among others, to interpret dreams. However, the reading of others signs and omens, as in deductive divination, are scolded as evil by the Old Testament. Magic was also practiced in the ANE. Where divination discovered different meanings or problems, magic was able to use power to fix those problems. Incantations and rituals were used to appease the anger of the gods, to eliminate the evil spirits, to cleanse the affected home or space, and to cleanse the effected person from those evil spirits so that they could continue to function as normal. Magicians, known as Asipu were elevated to a high place, similar to a priest, and were focused on discovering and eliminating bad spirits. The Asu used herbs and other natural remedies to aid in the effect of the incantations. Next, the text explains the specific goals of divination. First and foremost, the goal was to legitimize the king and give him guidance. Omens were not set in stone, but rather, were predictions and warnings. If a good omen was found, that didnt necessarily guarantee that the good fortune would come to pass, and vice versa. A main point in understanding the importance of divination was the  issue of certainty. One would think that after several failed attempts to predict the future, the practice would lose its validity. However, this was not the common mindset. Rather than perfect prediction of the future, divination should be understood more along the lines of, â€Å"draw[ing] a particular issue to ones attention. (269) The chapter ends by quickly dealing with the test of a true prophet given in Deuteronomy 18. If a prophesy is off or does not come true, can that prophet immediately be discredited? Walton concludes that based on several texts, prophets were given an opportunity to show their trustworthiness, but if they continued to prove that their words were not from God, they were disregarded. CHAPTER 12 Chapter twelve delves further into how the importance of the city partners with life and purpose of the king. Earlier chapters noted that the people who lived outside of the cities practiced religion in different ways. Within the ANE cultures, living outside of the city or being a nomad was frowned upon. Life in the city was the best life in which to be engaged. The Mesopotamians as well as the Egyptians believed that cities were created by the gods, before humans, as a tie to the past. Just as in every other aspect of life in the ANE, the objectives of both the city and the king were to please the gods. Cities were the epicenter of the world; they were a place where people lived and did business, but ultimately where the temples were. Each city had its own temple that was dedicated to a specific god. The importance of the city was somewhat the same for the Israelites. Gods home on earth was the temple, and the temple was located in the city of Jerusalem. The difference, however, was that there was only one temple for the Israelites, and that temple was in one city. Kings were the rulers of the time, thus directly tied to the cities, and therefore kingship played a very important role in religious practice. Kings were thought to have been chosen by the gods and were always attempting to show that the gods approved of them as king. They were the mediators between the gods and the people who lived under their rule. It was said that they had access to the gods and their plans in a way that no other person did. The view of king was so high in Egypt that he was seen as divine. The king had many responsibilities in regard to the upkeep of the city, one of the most important being the institution of justice. But it was also the kings responsibility to lead  the charge in appeasing the gods so that their land would be safe and overflow with blessing. Again, these ideas are very similar to Hebrew kingship. God did choose a king and he gave them authority to speak on His behalf. Some pose that the OT is anti-king, but it is best to take from the text that God had always planned for a king. He was disgusted that the people did not want him to rule over them and that they wanted a king on their time line. And, of course, from the line of King David comes the ultimate king, the Messiah. CHAPTER 13 Chapter thirteen unpacks even more about how the people of the ANE lived, specifically how their laws were enforced, how wisdom was passed down, their views of justice, and how justice and ethics were related. The first section focuses on the treatises: medical, divinatory, and legal. These writings were wisdom passed down from past decisions made to offer guidance to the next set of people who would be making the decisions. Medical personnel could find remedies that worked, diviners could better know how to interpret an omen, and the king would know hold justice might have been handled prior to his time. These treatises were a series of if statements that explained certain situations and how to handle them. An example might be, â€Å"if a man steals something, cut off his hand.† It is important to note that there was not necessarily a set group of laws, rather, these treatises, along with wisdom literature, were used to create the norms of justice based on what had worked in the past. These pieces of literature served to legitimize the king. The Book of the Covenant is the Israelite writing that most closely resembles this type of literature. Wisdom literature from Egypt and Mesopotamia also played an important role in keeping societal order, but in a different fashion. Wisdom from such literature was meant to foresee potential problems and develop ways to alter the behavior in society so that potential problems would not present themselves. Walton explains that law, as we understand it today, was not a part of the culture of the ANE. There was not a list of rules written down that people used to regulate the way in which they lived. Rather, the state functioned based on personal ideas of fairness, wisdom from kings past, and the king at the present time. The goals were always balance and order in society and in the cosmos. Ergo, as the gods delivered  their responsibilities down through the kings, the kings were held responsible for keeping order in society by handling the judicial responsibilities entrusted to him by the gods. As mentioned in the section on morals and ethics, the gods were primarily concerned about social order, and the personal morality of people was not specifically important. The chapter closes by comparing the way in which people outside of Israel tried to live and how the Hebrews were guided by God to live. While the pagan tribes were focused on conforming to societal expectations, honoring the king, and pleasing the gods, Yahweh had revealed himself to Israel and had given details through the Ten Commandments and the covenant about how to live a holy life. While the pagan communities continued to try and determine a right way to live by waiting for answers from mute gods, the Israelites had heard from the Almighty and were trying to obey the details of the covenant agreement. CHAPTER 14 Having dealt with the ideas of how life began, the importance of familial heritage, and the ways in which life functioned in the day-to-day of the ANE, the final chapter of the book focuses on how future life on earth and the afterlife were viewed in the ANE. The idea of a better life in the future was foreign to the ANE mindset. The focus was not to make a better life for oneself, but to continue the legacy of the family name. Having an heir who would take care of the family business and continue the worship of the family’s gods was vital. Regardless of their situation, there was no savior coming to make things better. Israel, on the other hand, had the hope of the Messiah, which many misunderstood to be an earthly king who would come to free them from bondage and return them to their place of stature as in the days of David. The afterlife was, except for a failed weighing of the heart in Egyptian thought, generally not believed to be a place of punishment. The Egyptians believed that the ba and the ka were separated from the body at death, and that if the correct processes involved in burial were practiced, they would be enabled to reconnect with those pieces. In Mesopotamia, just as the future of life was strongly tied to the idea of family and community, so was the afterlife. The worst thing that could happen to a dead person was improper burial which would cut them off from the family and relegate them to a life alone.  Additionally, those who did not receive a proper burial were thought to be potentially dangerous spirits. It was common practice that those still alive from the family would care for those dead by providing water libations, providing left-over food from the table, and holding meals in honor of their ancestors. Specially trained men would assist them in communicating with the deceased. The netherworld is the name that was consistently used for the afterlife. Humans, aside from kings who were given the opportunity to enter into heaven with the gods, all ended up here. There are multiple stories about the process that one might take in order to gain access to the netherworld, but all eventually ended up here. This is never indicated as a place of torment, but just a plain and boring existence hopefully in community with their ancestors. The Israelite idea of Sheol, which is mentioned in the Old Testament, is not to be understood as hell either. Walton indicates that there is no text that supports the interpretation that Sheol is to be understood in this fashion. POSTSCRIPT In the postscript, Walton reminds the reader of the importance of comparative studies and how vital it is to understand the Old Testament within its cognitive environment. He admits that he has not created the perfect text on the subject, but that one of his goals was to try and further develop the idea of comparative studies in a more complete manner where others have shied to the safe side and not tackled a work such as this. The second goal was to show that the Israelites shared in the cognitive environment of the ANE, which this reader believes he did very well. The author notes that the literature involved in the study of the ANE must be connected to the culture in which it was written and understood in light of it. The final portion shows the latter to be true by summarizing the main areas of thought and the similarities and differences between Israel and the other nations. All believed that the source of human beings was the gods, but only Israel believed in the creation of an original man and woman from whom all other people came. All attempted to please their gods, but only Israel had received revelation that communicated what Yahweh was thinking and what he expected. All were under the rule of a higher power, for Israel it was their upholding of the covenant while for the others it was submission to the king and the gods that had instituted his  rule. While social norms and literature passed down from old kings drove behavior in most people of the ANE, the revelation from God at Sinai gave the Hebrew people a guide for how to live. While all others had no hope of anything good in the future nor anything exciting in the afterlife, the Israelites were given the promise of a king who would come through David whose throne would last forever. Walton ends the text with a final statement that is worth repeating in this summary. He concludes that all of the information proposed within the text should be used to guard against a facile or uninformed imposition of our own cognitive environment on the texts of ancient Israel, which is all too typical in confessional circles. May all confessional readers of Gods word strive to understand his revelation as best as possible so that we might know and discern the perfect will of the one, true God. WORKS CITED Walton, John H.. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006.